Learning Theories and Instructional Design

The course Learning Theories and Instruction embarked on an expedition through time from the philosophies of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle to the complex and diverse learning theories provoking the transformation of modern day education.   As philosophy capitulated to science, theories and models emerged in an endeavor to explicate the intricacies of the learning process.  According to Ormrod, Schunk, & Gredler (2009), learning theories provide a reference for research, organize concepts, and illustrate conceptual thinking.  To put it another way, learning theories and their associated models facilitate visualization of abstract ideas and connect new thinking to existing knowledge.  Learning theories undergo intense peer examination, scrutiny, and criticism and as a result are frequently evolving into improved representations of the conditions they embody.  Although no learning theory accurately describes all aspects of the learning process (Kerr, 2007), an understanding of the various models along with individual learning intelligences and styles is constitutive for the instructional designer.

Behaviorism describes learning as a stimulus and response relationship where the learner experiences rewards or punishment to condition the desired response (Standridge, 2001).  While behaviorist tactics are appropriate in certain situations, research indicates more sophisticated models of learning are highly effective in complex problem solving, developing critical think skills, social connections, and self-determination.  It is utterly astonishing that behaviorist-learning theory continues to abound in modern day education.  Behlol and Dad (2010) recommend teacher training in the diversity of learning theories including upgrading teacher training programs and for teacher classroom roles to change from didactic centric teaching to facilitating, directing, and motivating.  Every student harbors predispositions with respect to their learning; previous experience, cultural ascendancy, social influences, and biological proclivity all amalgamate towards defining our learning preferences.

There is significance in students understanding their learning style and being able to regulate some of the conditions encompassing their education.  Comprehension of my personal learning has increased considerably in numerous facets such as a fundamental understanding of cognitive processing, a new appreciation of the importance of social learning and realization of my personal control over behaviors like attention and motivation.  Furthermore, my perspicacity of the relationship between theory and application including the significance of learning styles and the role of educational technology has proliferated.   Learning theories provide models to study and assimilate the mechanism of learning, learning styles convey the application of theory on a personal level and motivation is relative to the congruence of teaching method and learning style.  While intrinsic motivation is a more effective attribute for scholarly persistence, knowledge retention and building autonomy, extrinsic tactics are still a practical motivational methodology (Li-Shih, 2003). Educational technology provides a platform for the transformation of rote learning by memorization to authentic, engaging, and self-directed learning that develop the critical thinking skills required for complex problem solving.  The internalization of theory, practical application of learning intelligences and styles, skill with educational technologies, and grasp of motivational psychology and techniques are necessary resources for proficiency in instructional design.

The course Learning Theories and Instruction examined several models of learning contrasting the representations with each other against catechisms such as how learning occurs, influencing factors, the role of memory, and the process of transfer.  Multiple intelligences and individual learning styles revealed the importance of differentiated instruction for simulating attention, engagement, motivation, self-efficacy, self-determination, confidence, satisfaction and relevance.  Formal examination of motivation divulged two primary motivational manifestations; extrinsic motivations that are external artifacts like goals, rewards, and punishments, and intrinsic motivations consisting of congenital or self-determined derivation.  The accumulation of course material and acquired knowledge will benefit my future involvement in instructional design activities with theory and research supported models along with an appreciation for personal preferences of both instructors and students.

References

Behlol, M., & Dad, H. (2010). Concept of Learning. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 2(2), 231-239. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Kerr, B. (2007, January 1). _isms as filter, not blinker. Retrieved September 20, 2011, from http://billkerr2.blogspot.com/2007/01/isms-as-filter-not-blinker.html.

Li-Shih, H. (2003). Ten Pointers for Enhancing Learners' Motivation. Business Communication Quarterly, 66(4), 88-95. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Ormrod, J., Schunk, D., & Gredler, M. (2009). Learning theories and instruction (Laureate custom edition). New York: Pearson

Standridge, M. (2001). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Behaviorism

Fitting the Pieces Together

Over the last seven weeks I have spent a considerable amount of time and energy studying and learning about assorted learning theories, learning styles, multiple intelligences, and how technology relates to these topics.  One element all of these theories and models have in common is they attempt to explain how and why we learn, either from a pure physiological perspective or from a more pragmatic educational viewpoint (Ormrod, Schunk, & Gredler, 2009; Ertmer & Newby, 1993). During the first week, I wrote about my personal learning style and the learning theories that most closely fit my learning behaviors. This week I will compare my current viewpoint with my initial thinking and explain my revised perception. Additionally, I will elucidate the function of technology in my personal learning.

During the first week, we studied three fundamental learning theories, behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.  It was easy for me to see how each of these theories could apply to various aspects of my learning activities. Ormrod, Schunk, & Gredler (2009) defined the difference between theories, philosophies, and models with theories being more specific, scientifically grounded, and testable.  Hodkinson & Macleod (2010) argue that there are contrasting views within specific theories along with divergent testing methodologies amongst researchers.  They also contend that personal and even professional predispositions influence study methodologies, conclusions, and opposing criticisms. My interest in learning theories is in practical educational application and is not concerned with superfluous claims or criticisms with regard to any given theory.  The question is has my view of how I learn changed because of the additional information presented.

Over the weeks, we have added connectivism, social learning, and adult learning to the list of theories to consider and furthermore, we have contemplated learning styles and multiple intelligences. My view of how I personally learn has changed with respect to the magnitude of my understanding.  Relationships to the initial theories were palpable and the same is true for the additional learning theories. Constructivism is a way of looking at how new knowledge is built on prior experience and if you stick with the practical application it complements earlier theories.  Even for an introverted personality like me, social learning is still prevalent in my daily quest for solutions to problems. For example, I have been successful in repairing my riding lawnmower because of online social interactions with people more knowledgeable than I am.  Of course, adult learning theory explains why I have made sacrifices to pursue an advanced degree. My most profound discovery was that no specific learning style or learning intelligence is dominant for all learning scenarios and because of this, the learning environment and the instructional design have an enormous impact on the effectiveness of the experience.  For instance, I always wondered why the resources videos always started with a music track.  For me it just seemed like a waste of time, however, for someone else it severed to mentally prepare them for the video.

Technology is a major contributor in my learning environment whether it is professional or personal.  My learning network diagram opened my eyes to how dependent I am on the Internet and social interactions with others.  These are often not interpersonal interactions nevertheless; I am dependent upon others sharing their knowledge in a way that I can access it. While working on my mower, there was an interesting post in one of the forums I was gleaning information.  The jest was how the Internet had saved that person thousands of dollars over the years (tony17112acst, 2011). The Sears technician quoted $400 to repair my mower, it cost me $40 in parts and some of my time and as a bonus, I learned a great deal about small engine repair.  That is only a scratch in the surface of my dependence upon technology.  Another example is the hundreds of documents stored on my servers, website, and knowledge that help me do my job and help others in the school do their jobs.  Take away my computer or Internet and I am helpless.

References

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50–71.

Hodkinson, P., & Macleod, F. (2010). Contrasting concepts of learning and contrasting research methodologies: affinities and bias. British Educational Research Journal, 36(2), 173-189. doi:10.1080/01411920902780964

Ormrod, J., Schunk, D., & Gredler, M. (2009). Learning theories and instruction (Laureate custom edition). New York: Pearson.

tony17112acst (2011, June 24) Craftsman Mower Suddenly Doesn't Run - Checked A LOT of thing. [Discussion group comment]. Retrieved October 22, 2011 from http://forums2.gardenweb.com/forums/load/tractor/msg062001491527.html?29

My Learning Network

Connectivism and Adult Learning

Until this week, connectivism and social learning were concepts I had never heard of never the less given any thought too.  Connectivism is a loosely defined theory of capricious complex systems and distributed networks of information and learning (Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, 2008).  Whether connectivism qualifies as an actual learning theory or simply a pedagogic representation of a complex and unpredictable learning structure is debatable.  Connectivism does facilitate insight on concepts such as managing the flow of information, identifying relevant knowledge sources, recognizing important connections, and the trend of informal learning (Behlol & Dad, 2010).  Additionally, connectivistic learning relies on social networks for gathering, maintaining, and managing knowledge and connecting with other like-minded professionals.

Learning Network

Reflecting on this week’s discussion post and my professional learning network mind map, has helped me appreciate the immense breadth of intrinsic social networking in my routine workday.  Connectivism explicates the constantly changing dynamics of working in educational technology.  The following are two different examples of network-derived changes in my operational approach to problem solving.  Our student database is incessantly changing and increasingly complex software that is essential to many aspects of the daily operations of the school district.  In the not too distant past software updates and feature modifications or expansions occurred on a semiannual to annual basis.  Now, updates including feature enhancements arrive monthly or sometimes semimonthly.  Originally, operational and support manuals were bound books which later evolved to binders and now consist of electronic documents in a continuously updated online repository.  One thing is certain, with frequent software updates comes the introduction of unexpected anomalies commonly referred to as bugs. Online knowledgebase’s, forums, user groups, and list servers expedite the communication of information and peer consultation in identifying anomalies and the pursuit of solutions to discovered problems.  Respectively, I have scores of books on outdated operating systems, programming languages, productivity applications, and other software; literally hundreds of books collected over the last fifteen years.  Now, I rarely purchase these types of books, if I need information Google is my usual solution.  Information that would never make it into a book or not yet published is still available on the Internet.  A precept of connectivism is the half-life of knowledge and having the network connections to obtain pertinent up-to-date information.

Digital Tools

Digital tools abound in sociality today and many unfortunately have a similar half-life as knowledge.  Knowledge acquisition during my general day-to-day work routine depends heavily on my computer, the Internet, and my web browser with its vast organization of bookmarks.  I have tried several handheld devices like the iPod, iPad, and Xoom but they have not found a niche in my daily operations.  The learning environment I established for my Walden classes is somewhat more elaborate to provide desired and necessary versatility.  Because I needed a way to access schoolwork from multiple devices like my work computer, home computer, laptop, and even handheld devices I rely on Dropbox.   Additionally, I setup an instance of my Chrome browser specific to my Walden classes providing single click access to the course homepage, Walden library, Google Reader, and my Blog site.  The handheld devices have proven useful when I am traveling for reading and annotating PDF documents.  Of course, with all of the required writing, Microsoft Word has proven an extremely useful tool. 

Knowledge and Questions

My primary method for answering questions starts with a general Google search.  Depending upon the nature of the question, its difficulty and complexity, the answer will present itself or I will need to dig deeper.  With difficult and complex problems, there are usually multitudes of superficial answers that necessitate filtering.  This requires a cyclic process of identifying relevant keywords and refining search strings until I find what I am looking for.  If the question is specific to a particular product or application, I might start with a list serv or knowledge base dedicated to that product or application.  Sometimes an email or phone call to the technical support department garners the desired results.   Some questions I never find the answer too.  In general, the nature of the questions dictates the process of searching for the solution.

Professional Learning Network

Figure one is a graphical representation of my professional learning network.  While I am not convinced connectivism is justifiable as a learning theory, some of its principles align fairly well with my own experience.  The notion of connecting multiple information resources is highly illustrated in my professional learning network, as is the employment of non-human devices.  Although the need to give back to the community is apparent, it is an aspect of connectivism that I often neglect due to time constraints.  The precept of being able 

Figure 1.

to make connections between concepts is fundamental to my world as a technology director.  However, a couple of the principles of connectivism seem nonsensical to me.  The connectivistic belief that learning capacity is more important than current knowledge sounds like philosophical fluff rather than an actual principle. Existing knowledge structures are usually essential in the process of connecting new knowledge (Nummela & Rosengren, 1986; Jenkins, 2006; Hodkinson & Macleod, 2010).  The second tenet I take issue with is the claim that current and accurate knowledge is the reason for all connectivistic learning behavior.  Knowledge for the sake of knowledge is not my professional goal.  I most often seek knowledge to solve problems or learn skills.

Connectivism conceptualizes complex learning environments by explaining the role of networks, relating concepts, infrastructure, and continual learning. However, the psychology does little to explain how actual learning occurs questioning its validity as an authentic learning theory.  Many connectivistic principles align with social learning concepts and adult learning in general.  Regardless, connectivism is another instrument the instructional designer should consider during the design process.

References

Behlol, M., & Dad, H. (2010). Concept of Learning. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 2(2), 231-239. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Davis, C., Edmunds, E., & Kelly-Bateman, V. (2008). Connectivism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Connectivism

Hodkinson, P., & Macleod, F. (2010). Contrasting concepts of learning and contrasting research methodologies: affinities and bias. British Educational Research Journal, 36(2), 173-189. doi:10.1080/01411920902780964

Jenkins, Jack. (2006). Constructivism. Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration. Retrieved September 25, 2011, from http://sage-ereference.com/view/edleadership/n121.xml

Nummela, R. M., & Rosengren, T. M. (1986). What's Happening in Students' Brains May Redefine Teaching. Educational Leadership, 43(8), 49. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Information Processing Theory and the Learning Process

Considerable research and studies over the years contributes vast amounts of information and data pertaining to the learning process.   Researchers use this information and data to develop models and theories to help explain the learning process.  Over time these models and theories are tested, critiqued, modified, and sometimes abandoned because newer more complex and precise theories emerge.  Additionally, these models and theories attempt to relate brain-processing functions to familiar concepts to give them useful meaning.  Overall, we know much about cognitive information processing and its relationship to human learning.  However, research and the associated models and theories are continually evolving making it difficult to put theory into practice.  Ertmer & Newby suggests it is the role of the instructional designer to put the most current, relevant and effective theories and models into the practice of student learning (1993).  This week I will evaluate two resources in the field of information processing theory and the learning process.  The first resource is a website and paper on information processing theory and the second is an article on putting the theory into practice.

Information Processing Theory

For a detailed review of Information Processing Theory along with numerous links to relevant web based information visit The Information Processing Approach to Cognition website.  The site has a link to a more in-depth paper on Information Processing and Memory along with other links on cognitive psychology.  The parent site is Educational Psychology Interactive that contains numerous links for topics on psychology including a number of sections related to education.  Dr. William Huitt from the Department of Psychology, Counseling & Guidance at Valdosta State University runs the site.

Huitt (2003) provides a picture of information processing theory that is consistent with our course readings.   Huitt argues that current research a 5 ± 2 working memory limit rather than the more conventional 7 ± 2 limit.  The site provides a nice visual diagram of the three-stage memory model modified to include parallel-distributed processing theory.  There is also a table of classroom examples of activities aligned with information processing theory principals.  I found the site and related links both off site and additional internal resources to be accurate and informational.

Theory into Practice

What's Happening in Students' Brains May Redefine Teaching

The second resource is an article published in Educational Leadership that provides insight on teaching strategies based on brain based research and information processing theory.  The article reviews some basic information processing theory principals such as sensory input, information processing, memory storage and retrieval, and attention.  Nummela & Rosengren (1986) present that the brain is constantly processing sensory inputs and attending to these inputs regardless of the source or intent.  For effective learning, the proper environment enables students to attend to the stimuli provided by the teacher.  The teachers struggle is to capture students’ external attention and appropriately direct their internal attention or thought process.  When the presented material is not sufficiently developed or organized; then student attention, either external, internal, or both will be compromised.

According to information processing theory, connecting sensory input to existing knowledge causes activation and processing to effect storage.  The most effective stimuli recalls existing knowledge, evolves or extends the existing knowledge, and leads to the storage of additional new knowledge.  According to Nummela & Rosengren, there are three primary barriers to student attention; 1) perceived threats cause lower level thinking and distraction, 2) logical conflicts cause excessive evaluation and possible rejection of an idea, 3) ethical variance causes internal conflict and distraction.  Teachers need to be aware of these barriers and neutralize them by providing a friendly and safe learning environment, watch for and address logical conflicts, and be mindful of ethical implications.  For creating a safe environment and gaining student trust, Nummela & Rosengren write:

“The dual plan is a term used to describe a very complex set of characteristics, including the teachers’ ability to generate trust and affection.  This ability stems from the sense of genuineness, of ‘realness,’ of deep concern and integrity which the teacher projects” (p. 51).

What surprises me the most is this article is twenty-five years old and these concepts are so fundamentally true and relevant, why is this not common place in education today?

I found this article extremely informational and hope everyone in the class takes the time to read it.

We reviewed two resources on information processing theory and the learning process.  The first resource from Educational Psychology Interactive provided a detailed overview of the information processing approach to cognition.  Additionally, the site contained a detailed paper on information processing and memory and numerous other links to cognitive psychology topics.  The second resource was an article on information processing theory and practical applications for teaching and learning.  I think both of these resources are outstanding and well worth investigating. 

References

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50–71.

Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved September 17, 2011, from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infoproc.html

Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2003). Information processing and memory: Theory and

applications. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.

Retrieved September 17, 2011, from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/infoproc.pdf   

Nummela, R. M., & Rosengren, T. M. (1986). What's happening in students' brains may redefine teaching. Educational Leadership, 43(8), 49. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198605_nummela.pdf.

Interesting Blogs for Instructional Design and Educational Technology

Perform a blog search on “Instructional Design” and several hundred related blogs fill the screen for your reading pleasure.   Closer investigation reveals scores of these blogs are from past instructional design students and are no longer active.  Additionally, countless more are commercial, irreverent, or just not very active or interesting.  However, there is still a plethora of interesting blogs, especially if you expand your search criteria to include educational technology.  I chose to monitor four blogs, two dedicated to instructional design and two devoted to provoking stimulated thinking regarding various educational topics, kind of like mind candy.

Instructional Design & Development Blog

Maintained by DePaul University Faculty Instructional Technology Services (FITS), the contributors to this blog consist of about a dozen faculty and staff from the university.  The blog averages 2-3 posts per month but has an extremely low instance of comments.  The site contains an assortment of posts on topics from the mundane to some being extremely interesting and useful.  For an instructional designer the post Constructing Effective Online-Learning Environments via the Community of Inquiry (CoI) Framework was particularly engaging with its collaborative process framework.  Some of the posts explain ready to use techniques that can be useful in the classroom or for general technology usage.  A number of the posts refer to the Desire 2 Learn or D2L initiative and are informational in nature or provide functional tips.  While following this blog might provide some interesting topics, it is doubtful that it will entail much collaborative dialog.

Instructional Design Fusions

Dianne Rees a practicing instructional designer maintains this blog, which is, chocked full of interesting posts related to instructional design and elearning.  Interestingly, one of the more recent posts was an overview of Community of Inquiry (CoI) which is similar to a post in the Instructional Design & Development Blog.  The frequency of posts in this blog is 2-3 times a week and there is quite a bit more comments activity, post backs and cross posting.  One of the posts was an introduction to Compendium, an open source mind mapping and organizational tool.  The Compendium post also included links to several other similar tools for exploration by the reader.  For an instructional designer or anyone interested in educational technology following the posts of this blog could pay nice dividends.

Dangerously Irrelevant

Dangerously Irrelevant is an extremely popular blog touching on some of the most controversial topics.  Scott McLeod, Associate Professor at the University of Kentucky, is the author of this blog.  The blog averages 2-3 posts per week and receives many comments and cross posting.  I like this blog because it challenges the status quo and sparks conversation on contentious issues.  Ferriter (2009) writes,” Public articulation is essential for educators interested in refining and revising their thinking about teaching and learning” (p. 37).  This blog provides content, stimulation and a forum for some of this expression.  Dr. McLeod maintains another exciting blog called Mind Dump, which you may enjoy if you find Dangerously Irrelevant an interesting read.  The usefulness of this blog resides not just from the opinions of the author but also from the responses and corresponding discussions, whether in agreement or dissent.

THE FISCHBOWL

The Fischbowl, maintained by Karl Fisch, administrator and teacher in Littleton, CO. is another interesting and sometimes controversial blog.  Karl Fisch was a contributor to the highly popular presentation Shift Happens that later was expanded into the equally popular video Did You Know which, by the way, was also contributed too by Dr. Scott McLeod.   The latest version of the video, Iowa, Did You Know, was released last week at the School Administrators of Iowa Conference.  The Fischbowl receives several posts per month and several comments for each post.  If you are interested in getting into the fray of educational debate this could be a stimulating blog to follow and contribute too.

Ferriter (2009) is emphatic about the usefulness of educational blogs for collaboration and improving teacher knowledge and instructional practice.  Ferriter suggests, “Over time, you'll start to see a real change in the quality of the conversations that you're having with your peers.  Instead of simply chatting about your weekend, you'll find yourself debating the merits of the new practices that you've stumbled across online” (p. 37).  According to Ferriter, this can happen by investing as little as ten minutes a day into following a few well chosen blogs and spending some time in related conversation with your coworkers.

References

Ferriter, B. (2009). Learning with Blogs and Wikis. Educational Leadership, 66(5), 34-38. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.